The Destruction of Tenochtitlan
This chapter focuses on Cortez’ arrival in the Aztec Empire, his approach to and entrance into Tenochtitlan (the Aztec capital), Montezuma’s submission to Cortez, and the destruction of Tenochtitlan. This lesson focuses on the question of historical responsibility.
Lesson 1
1) Class Discussion: Read the first paragraph of the chapter with the class, and discuss the question of historical responsibility. Point out to students that the meeting between Cortez and Montezuma is regarded by many historians as one of the most momentous meetings in history, along with the meeting between Francisco Pizarro and the Incan emperor (in what is now Peru), which occurred only a few years later. These two meetings (Cortez and Montezuma, Pizarro and the Incan emperor) are regarded as a clash between continents as well as cultures. Why do students think the meeting between Cortez and Montezuma was so important? Could it have ended any differently? Today, historians view what happened at Tenochtitlan as a horrible tragedy, the beginning of a holocaust that swept through the Americas and left 90 percent of the indigenous population dead from massacres, battles, and especially from disease. Williams says “it was no man’s fault.” Did Cortez had a responsibility to try to save Tenochtitlan? Should he have anticipated any of what was to follow, either the destruction of Tenochtitlan in particular (an act he committed himself), or the general carnage that occurred later, the near depopulation of two American continents? Is it fair to hold any historical figure responsible for unleashing large historical events such as this? While you are discussing Cortez and Tenochtitlan, make connections to the previous chapter. Does Columbus, likewise, bear any historical responsibility for what later occurred? Why or why not?
2) Plot: Make an outline of the plot of this chapter. What happened when? You may want to outline the plot in the form of a timeline. How did the destruction of Tenochtitlan unfold? At what point do you think that it became inevitable?
3) Saving Tenochtitlan: Divide the class into small groups or partnerships. With groups or partners, have students discuss what happened to Tenochtitlan. Referring to their plot outlines, have students consider whether or not there was a point in time when Tenochtitlan could have been saved. If Tenochtitlan could have been saved, what would have to have happened differently? Or was the destruction of the city, and of the Aztec civilization, inevitable?
4) In Class Essay: Williams discusses only the destruction that Cortez and his men wrought deliberately. Williams does not mention the diseases that Cortez brought with him without meaning to. Have students write an essay on the question of historical responsibility for unintended harm. Should Cortez be held responsible for bringing the Aztecs diseases such as smallpox, even though he did not know that he was bringing disease with him? Why or why not? How do we decide who to hold responsible for historical events? Or should anyone be held responsible? Why or why not?
5) Homework: Write an essay about Montezuma. What was Montezuma’s responsibility for what happened at Tenochtitlan? How did Montezuma try to prevent it? Do you think that Montezuma’s instructions to the Aztecs to accept Cortez as their regent were intended to prevent the destruction of the city and civilization? Or was Montezuma simply overpowered by the conquerers? Use evidence from the chapter to support your answer.
Lesson 2
The Destruction of Tenochtitlan
This chapter focuses on Cortez’ arrival in the Aztec Empire, his approach to and entrance into Tenochtitlan (the Aztec capital), Montezuma’s submission to Cortez, and the destruction of Tenochtitlan. This lesson focuses on the characters of Cortez and Montezuma, and Williams’ view of each of them.
1) Class Discussion: Discuss the characters of Cortez and Montezuma. Ask students: what do you think of these two men? what does Williams think? How can you tell what Williams thinks of them? Of Cortez, Williams says “What his hand touched went down in spite of him.” What does Williams mean by “in spite of him”? Is he saying that Cortez personally appreciated Aztec culture and the Aztec capital? Why or why not? Of Montezuma’s submission to Cortez, Williams writes, “Whether or not this be evidence on the Aztec’s part of weakness or the deepest forbearance, surely nothing like it for quiet flexibility of temper and retained dignity has ever been recorded.” He goes on to speculate that perhaps Montezuma was afraid of Cortez, but that, “Still, if this be so, Montezuma has left no trace of cowardice upon the records.” Do each of these men have characteristics that Williams considers to be an important part of the American Grain? Do students see a connection between Cortez, Montezuma, and the other characters who have been discussed in the book so far–Eric the Red, Freydis, and Columbus? What impression have they formed of the American Grain so far, based on these individuals?
2) Historical Sources: While you are discussing Cortez and Montezuma, take a moment to discuss historical sources. Point out to students that the Spanish conquistadors and the Aztecs did not speak the same language. In fact, when Cortez landed on the coast of Mexico, he met many different peoples, who spoke different languages. Cortez had to employ a translator, a woman known to history as La Malinche, who is famous in her own right, to help him communicate with the people he met. La Malinche spoke both Nahuatl, the Aztec language, and several Mayan dialects. Cortez also had another translator, Geronimo de Aguilar, a Spanish priest who had been captured by the Mayans and imprisoned by them for several years, who spoke a Mayan dialect. When Cortez spoke to the Aztecs, the Aztecs spoke to La Malinche in Nahuatl, she would translate their words into Mayan for Aguilar, and Aguilar translated into Spanish for Cortez. Do students see any problems with this system of communication? Point out that almost everything we now know about Tenochtitlan and the Aztec civilization comes to us from the accounts of the Spanish conquistadors and the priests who traveled with them (we know a little bit more from the information archeaologists have gleaned from excavations). The accounts written by conquistadors and Spanish priests were almost certainly Williams’ main sources of information about Montezuma. Does this affect students’ perception of Montezuma in any way? Why or why not?
3) Mining for Evidence: Divide the class into two groups. (Alternatively, if your class is very large, you may want to divide the class into small groups for this activity and for the class presentation that follows.) Have one half of the class mine the chapter for evidence of Williams’ opinion of Cortez. Have the other half mine the chapter for evidence of Williams’ opinion of Montezuma. Have students make notes of their evidence, by copying down quotations, or listing particular incidents. Then have students in each group draw their own conclusions about what Williams thought of each man. How does Cortez represent the American Grain? How does Montezuma?
4) Class Presentation: Reform the class into one group, and have members from each group give an oral presentation of the evidence that they found, explaining how Cortez and Montezuma relate to the American Grain. Be sure that each student has an opportunity to speak about some aspect of Cortez’ or Montezuma’s character.
5) Homework: Write an essay in which you compare and contrast the characters of Cortez and Montezuma, as depicted by Williams. How are the two men similar? How are they different? Do they differ in their appreciation for Tenochtitlan? Do they differ in the approaches they use to try to save the city? Use evidence from the chapter to support your answer.
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